Few figures in contemporary Buddhism have been as influential as the Vietnamese Buddhist monk and activist Thich Nhat Hanh (1926–2022). A prolific author and the founder of both the Order of Interbeing and Plum Village Tradition, Thich Nhat Hanh is practically a household name, particularly in socially engaged Buddhist circles. But his life before he came to the West is often overlooked. His response to the modernizing forces of colonialism and empire reflected a broader reform movement among Asian Buddhists, setting the stage for Western Buddhism. For all his originality, Nhat Hanh was not an anomaly. Understanding his formative years in Vietnam is essential to gaining a more nuanced appreciation of his teachings.
Adrienne Minh-Châu Lê, a Columbia University PhD candidate in international history, is one of the first scholars to examine Nhat Hanh in the context of 20th-century Vietnamese Buddhist reforms, decolonization, and the Vietnam War. A lifelong Buddhist practitioner, Lê is ordained in the Order of Interbeing and serves as board chair for the Thich Nhat Hanh Foundation. In this conversation, Lê explains how Vietnam’s challenges influenced Nhat Hanh and helped shape one of the modern world’s most respected Buddhist teachers. “His whole reputation has been built in the West, mainly France and the US,” Lê says, “but he was a product of Vietnamese Buddhism.”
What misconceptions should people be mindful of when talking about Thich Nhat Hanh? I think a lot of misunderstandings about him and his tradition stem from a lack of knowledge about his background. He is often oversimplified as an accessible Zen master who teaches about breathing, smiling, and living in the present moment. Many people have a shallow understanding of him. He was a deep intellectual who navigated some of the most difficult times in recent history. He was shaped by his experience of colonialism and war; he saw his friends, teachers, and students being killed. Throughout his early life, he was grappling with the biggest questions of the 20th century: What is a nation? What is independence? What kind of government should we have? What should Buddhism look like? What do spirituality and values look like in this age?
He was a Buddhist scholar and visionary who engaged with a world that was so tumultuous. And out of that chaotic life, he distilled Buddhism into these beautiful, simple teachings that touch people no matter who they are, whether they know his background or not. That’s what made him such a profound teacher. It’s easy to appreciate his teachings without knowing his background, but if we understand where he came from, it makes us appreciate him more.
Many imagine Thich Nhat Hanh as the founder of Engaged Buddhism. Was this the case? He was the first to coin the English term “Engaged Buddhism” in the 1960s, but he translated the concept from a tradition that was alive before him. Asian Buddhist intellectuals in the early 20th century wanted to reform Buddhism so that it could speak to and influence modern society. Part of their vision was to promote “worldly Buddhism,” or “Buddhism for this world,” in which practitioners focus on active societal engagement through things like charity and education rather than just isolated meditation in far-off mountains.
This idea entered Vietnam through the Chinese monk Taixu (1890–1947), who inspired many other Buddhist reformers in East Asia. Throughout Thich Nhat Hanh’s early life, these reforms were already very much alive in central Vietnam. He was steeped in these ideas of worldly Buddhism—he believed them! And from them, he evolved his own practice of “Engaged Buddhism.”
Most of the Buddhist reforms of this time were driven by intellectuals who translated texts and spread their ideas through the newly emerging publishing industry. Other religious groups also tried to renew and revive their religions, speak to decolonization, and stay relevant to a society trying to build itself as a modern, independent country. These efforts were widespread among other groups too, not just Buddhists.
What was happening in Vietnam to drive this reform movement? The most significant force was colonialism. The French started colonizing Vietnam around 1850, and by the early 20th century, they were pretty much entrenched. As a colonial power, they transformed everything—they imposed a new government administration, new economic industries, and new educational systems.
Thich Nhat Hanh grew up under French colonialism, learning French language and literature before he entered monastic life. He grew up seeing his people oppressed, exploited, and taken advantage of. During this time, resistance movements were active, trying to gather enough strength to overthrow the French.
He entered monastic life as a novice in 1942 and was going to school in central Vietnam when World War II started. Japan came and occupied Vietnam from 1940 until 1945, when they surrendered to the Allies. Again, another layer of oppression. Just before this, from about 1930, a successful anticolonial movement was starting to build. So, all of this is happening at the same time! Vietnam was very much influenced by global politics and war while having its internal struggles for independence. After Japan’s surrender, the French returned, tried to reestablish control, and went to war with the Communist-led independence movement.
It must have been a challenging time for people. Under the colonial economic system, everything was in the hands of the French. All these lucrative industries they started—like rubber plantations, for example—were about extracting resources. The Vietnamese people were laborers for French-dominated industries. There was widespread poverty since the wealth generated was not for the Vietnamese people. A small class of elites collaborated with the French and prospered, but colonialism did not improve the lives of the people as a whole, and they had no say in how their country was run. Buddhism was very much entwined with nationalism, and Thich Nhat Hanh shared those concerns about national independence as he saw the people around him suffer.
“Buddhism was very much entwined with nationalism, and Thich Nhat Hanh shared those concerns about national independence as he saw the people around him suffer.”
How were Buddhists responding to this situation? As nationalist revolutionaries were building strength to fight the French, Buddhist intellectuals were trying to figure out how they too could help shape a modern Vietnam. Like in other Asian countries at this time, efforts were made to publish Buddhist scriptures, restore old temples, build new temples, reorganize the monastic sangha, and organize Buddhist lay associations. This movement started in the 1920s and was already strong when Thich Nhat Hanh became a monk.
The Buddhist revival leaders were kind of orthodox in their approach. They wanted to revisit the original teachings of the historical Buddha because as Buddhism spread across Asia, it took on many different forms and absorbed indigenous beliefs. They wanted to promote a more “true” and “pure” Buddhism in Vietnam. They wanted people not to worship blindly or believe in superstitions but to study the texts, understand what the Buddha taught, and incorporate it into their lives.
In Vietnam, this revival movement happened regionally. So the northern, central, and southern regions established their own associations, and local groups popped up in the provinces. They tried to educate the people, using the emerging print industry and public talks to spread the Buddha’s teachings to the masses and foster unity.
Each regional association promoted this new Vietnamese Buddhist identity, which was also tied to nationalist sentiments. This is common in the face of colonialism. People can use a unified identity to say, “We deserve independence because before Western powers came, we had a rich culture, intellectualism, and something that could be upheld as our national identity.” Buddhism was very much entwined with nationalism, and Thich Nhat Hanh shared those concerns about national independence as he saw the people around him suffer.
Was this limited to the mainstream schools of Buddhism? In southern Vietnam, new sects popped up in rural areas, especially in the Mekong Delta region, that also had a nationalist flavor. They have some fascinating histories. Their founders claimed to be a prophet or the reincarnation of a Buddha of some sort.
Like a messianic Maitreya, or future Buddha? Exactly! They first built a following in their village, which then spread widely. These new religious movements also positioned themselves as anticolonial forces. They built up militias and pushed back against French colonialism. They were so influential and powerful that the French backed off and were like, “OK, we’ll let you have your zone outside of the city. We’ll keep Saigon as our administrative center.” Although these were separate from the mainstream Buddhist revival organizations, Thich Nhat Hanh was probably aware of their activities.
You mentioned Buddhism’s close ties to nationalism, but nationalism has an authoritarian connotation. What did it mean to Thich Nhat Hanh? This is an important question. I’ve had people comment that it gives them chills to think of him as a nationalist because that term brings up negative feelings nowadays. But historically, nationalism has a different connotation. During the colonial era, nationalism was radical. It was about anti-oppression and self-determination. It wasn’t the toxic patriotism that we think of today. Being a nationalist meant you believed Vietnam should be independent and not serve and be exploited by a foreign power. You would be hard-pressed to find a Vietnamese person who wasn’t a nationalist.
Thich Nhat Hanh grew up during the rise of Communist-led anticolonial forces. He was exposed to their calls for revolution and wanted independence for Vietnam. In the early 2000s, he said that there was a time when he was tempted to become a Communist because he saw a lot of Buddhists writing about the Vietnamese nation but not offering concrete solutions. The Communist-led forces did. Many Buddhists joined groups like the Viet Minh and supported the revolution. But Thich Nhat Hanh said his realization of wanting to follow a nonviolent path saved him. He didn’t see violent revolution as the way out. That made him embrace the Buddhist revival as a path of non-violent revolution. He joined the Buddhists looking for a path toward Vietnamese unity and independence, without having to kill their own people to get there.
How was he involved in the Buddhist nationalist movement? A few years into his novice training, he wanted a broader, more progressive education that wasn’t just about Buddhist texts. He wanted to expand his mind and understand modern society through studying philosophy, literature, foreign languages, math, and science. So he went to Saigon. He connected with this network of Buddhist reformers and was invited to become editor-in-chief of the first national Buddhist magazine, Phât Giáo Viêt Nam (“Vietnamese Buddhism”). This is when we really see him blossom into a Buddhist nationalist. He made it his mission to convince fellow Buddhists to unite as a centralized national organization because he saw this as a way for them to influence the direction of the country. Later on, he wanted Buddhists to help bring a peaceful resolution to the civil war that started in the 1960s between the Communist north and anti-Communist south.
This must have contributed to his effective communication skills. He was known for his cosmopolitanism and ability to teach different people. In my research, it was interesting to find that his desire to reach different audiences showed up when he first started publishing. He wrote under twenty-eight different pen names and was very prolific. Under his name, Nhat Hanh, he wrote poetry. That’s why he became known, first and foremost, as a poet. But under his other pen names, he wrote about philosophy, literature, reviews, cultural commentary, and many other topics. From early on, he practiced using different voices to speak on different topics that interested different people. That carried forward into his life as a dharma teacher.
The cosmopolitan culture of Saigon also influenced him. He was already looking outward even before he was exiled and built a global reputation. He was always taking inspiration from other places. His first trip outside of Vietnam was to Japan in 1959 for a celebration of the 2,500th anniversary of the Buddha’s enlightenment. He was part of the Vietnamese delegation and gave a statement in English. This really invigorated and inspired him. He then devoted himself to mastering the English language because he saw it as an avenue to connect with the rest of the world. He went to the US to study at Princeton and Columbia, where he became a spokesperson for Vietnamese Buddhism during the 1963 “Buddhist crisis,” when the South Vietnamese government was oppressing Buddhists. So even before his exile, when he had to accept that the rest of his life would be outside of Vietnam, he was already very much engaged with the outside world. That made him unique at that time.
How did this brief time in the US impact his life? He kept journals about it, which were translated into English in the book Fragrant Palm Leaves. He was thrilled to be here. It was a totally different world compared with tropical Vietnam, which was so chaotic then. Princeton was peaceful, and he loved how quiet it was, especially in the fall and winter seasons. He absolutely loved it. And he loved the libraries at Columbia. He spent a lot of time at Butler Library and even wrote about having a moment of enlightenment there, which was just wild to read. He was deeply influenced by his time at Princeton and Columbia.
As a Columbia student, you must find that connection with Butler Library moving. I always felt like there’s a karmic reason I’m doing my PhD at Columbia. It was a perfect confluence of things. Columbia was just starting up its Vietnamese studies program when I applied, and I’m their first Vietnamese studies PhD. But the desire for a Vietnamese studies program at Columbia began with Thich Nhat Hanh. He befriended professors Horace L. Friess and Anton Zigmund-Cerbu, who wanted him to stay and build out Vietnamese and Buddhist studies. But he was called back to South Vietnam to help during the Buddhist crisis. In another life, if there hadn’t been a Buddhist crisis, he might have become a professor and taught Buddhist studies at Columbia. It was a real possibility that was unfolding. So, yeah, I feel a very personal connection to my studies here.
What was Thich Nhat Hanh’s big takeaway from this brief time outside Vietnam? He came to study comparative religion because he wanted to open his mind to other faiths around the world. This experience allowed him to connect with other religious leaders when he was trying to build support for the antiwar movement. He connected with Thomas Merton, Daniel Berrigan, and Martin Luther King, Jr.; he visited the Vatican to ask Pope Paul VI to mobilize Catholics to speak out against the Vietnam War. He believed that they were all pushing for the same goals—that at the core, every religion wanted the same thing. He was interested in the idea of a universal human value, which must be protected, and this time helped him connect with leaders who believed in the same value.
“If you look at Thich Nhat Hanh’s teachings, they’re about being home wherever you are.”
Bringing this into the present, do Vietnamese people look back on Thich Nhat Hanh as a representative of Vietnamese Buddhism? That is a whole can of worms. It depends on who you ask. He is a controversial figure among Vietnamese both inside and outside of Vietnam today. Because he spoke out against the war in the 1960s, not supporting North or South Vietnam during the civil war, he was exiled and couldn’t return to Vietnam until 2005. When he did return, many people were offended and angry because they saw it as an endorsement of the current government, which is still committing human rights abuses. It’s a very complicated political situation related to the war and postwar governments.
Politics aside, some people would push back against characterizing him as a representative of Vietnamese Buddhism. A lot of people might claim that he doesn’t really teach Vietnamese Buddhism and that he created his own thing to teach Buddhism to Westerners.
As someone who considers him their teacher and studies him in a historical context, I’m giving you a particular picture from my perspective. Anecdotally, he has significantly impacted the younger generation of Buddhists inside and outside of Vietnam today, and his books are widely available in every major bookstore in Vietnam now.
That’s why I want to write about him. It’s hard to think of a Vietnamese person who was more influential to the world in our lifetime. I feel so lucky to have a spiritual teacher who was alive at the same time as me and helped me understand my life and my place in the world as the daughter of refugees and the first generation in the US. I know he’s done that for so many other Vietnamese refugees around the world.
Why do you think Thich Nhat Hanh went home to die? He left the community that he spent so much time building in the West. This was an important moment. You’ll get a hundred different answers because he never clarified why he wanted to return. At the end of his life, he wasn’t speaking because he had had a stroke, but he did communicate that he wanted to go back. My read on it is that he wanted to return to his roots. Plum Village is not part of the Buddhist order he came from, and he is still officially the fifth patriarch of his root temple in Vietnam. Even though he didn’t live at that temple, his master selected him to become the next leader of that lineage. I think a part of him felt that he needed to go back; he needed to return to his roots and complete the circle of his life.
If you look at Thich Nhat Hanh’s teachings, they’re about being home wherever you are. I don’t think he saw Vietnam as more of his home than Plum Village. But it was a part of his life that he didn’t feel he got to complete because he was exiled. It was that desire to return to the roots that made him want to go back. His whole reputation has been built in the West, mainly France and the US, but he was a product of Vietnamese Buddhism. His return is a wake-up call for us to recognize and investigate what that means. Beyond his personal reasons, what was he trying to tell his students all over the world? He was telling us that, even though it took root in the West, Plum Village is a product of Vietnamese Buddhism.