Tibetan Buddhism is one of the most recognizable forms of Buddhism. Its rituals, intricate mandalas, and depictions of peaceful and wrathful deities have captured the imagination and drawn many into its global community. But behind these colorful external forms lies a complex, living tradition rooted in centuries of training, scholarship, and monastic life. Developed over more than a thousand years in Tibet and the surrounding regions, Tibetan Buddhism brought together Indian, Central Asian, and Chinese Buddhist teachings and practices, while also reflecting the cultural and historical heritage of Tibet. This page introduces key ideas, schools, figures, texts, and practices that have shaped Tibetan Buddhism, both in Tibet and beyond.

History of Tibetan Buddhism

Buddhism first took root in Tibet during the 7th century, when the region was ruled by the Yarlung dynasty. Songtsen Gampo (605–650), the thirty-third king, played a foundational role by inviting Indian Buddhist teachers, developing the Tibetan alphabet, and sponsoring the construction of temples. His wives, princesses from Nepal and China, were also early supporters of Buddhism and are said to have brought the sacred statues that remain enshrined in the Jokhang, Lhasa’s most revered temple.

In the 8th century, King Trisong Detsen (742–797) invited the Indian masters Shantarakshita and Padmasambhava to help establish Buddhism more firmly. Together, they founded Samye, Tibet’s first monastery, and hosted landmark debates between Indian and Chinese monks on the topic of gradual versus sudden enlightenment. With royal support, Sanskrit texts were translated into Tibetan, and Buddhism flourished until the mid-9th century, when King Langdarma was assassinated. His death marked the start of political unrest and institutional decline. Tibetan historians call this the age of fragmentation or the dark age. While traditional accounts cite religious persecution, many scholars point instead to widespread economic hardship across Asia during this period.

By the 11th century, a revival had begun. Indian teachers traveled to Tibet, and Tibetans journeyed to India to study and translate tantric scriptures. These transmissions gave rise to the “new” traditions (Tib.: sarma): Kadampa, Kagyu, and Sakya. In contrast, older lineages began calling themselves Nyingma, meaning “ancient ones.” The Bön tradition, blending pre-Buddhist Tibetan practices with Buddhist elements, also emerged as a distinct school during this second wave.

Although Buddhism declined in India, Tibetan Buddhism spread to Mongolia, Bhutan, Nepal, and parts of modern-day Russia and India. During the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), Tibetan lamas advised Mongol rulers, including Kublai Khan (1215–1294). With Mongol support, the Fifth Dalai Lama (1617–1682) unified much of Tibet under Gelug rule.

In 1959, the Chinese People’s Liberation Army invaded Tibet. The Fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935), fled into exile with thousands of Tibetans. Since then, many Tibetan Buddhist leaders have worked to preserve their teachings and traditions across a growing global diaspora.

Tibetan Buddhist Schools

As Tibetan Buddhism gained prominence, distinct schools developed around influential lamas and teachers.

The Nyingma tradition traces its origins back to the earliest wave of Buddhist transmission in Tibet, especially the teachings of the 8th-century master Padmasambhava, also known as Guru Rinpoche. This tradition emphasizes indigenous scriptures and Dzogchen (“Great Perfection”) meditation. During the dark age, when centralized support for Buddhism collapsed, these lineages were largely preserved through lay communities.

The Kadampa (“those who follow the instructions”) emerged in the 11th century through the Indian master Atisha (982–1054), who spent the last twelve years of his life teaching in Tibet. His lay disciple Dromtön (1004–1064) founded the school, which emphasized monastic discipline, ethical conduct, and mind training practices.

The Kagyu (“oral lineage”) school also developed in the 11th century, tracing its lineage through the Indian tantric masters Tilopa (988–1069) and Naropa (ca. 11th century), to the Tibetan translator Marpa (1012–1097), and his disciple Milarepa (1040–1123). Milarepa’s student Gampopa (1079–1153) systematized the tradition, which branched into several sub-schools, most notably the Karma, Drikung, and Drukpa Kagyu.

The Sakya (“gray earth”) school was founded by Khon Konchok Gyalpo (1034–1102), whose descendants continue to lead the tradition in an unbroken family line. Sakya is renowned for its lamdre (“path and result”) teachings, which are rooted in Indian tantric systems. Its scholars made lasting contributions to Tibetan philosophy.

The Bön tradition, which incorporates pre-Buddhist Tibetan rituals alongside Buddhist elements, began to differentiate itself more clearly during the new translation period. It is now recognized as the fifth major school of Tibetan Buddhism. The Jonang tradition arose somewhat later, focusing on the Kalachakra Tantra and a distinctive view of  “other-emptiness” (shentong), developed by Dölpopa (1292–1361).

The Gelug school, the youngest of the major traditions, is based on the teachings of Tsongkhapa (1357–1419). It emphasizes monastic discipline and rigorous philosophical analysis. The Fifth Dalai Lama’s political consolidation elevated the Gelug school while marginalizing others, such as the Bön and Jonang. In modern times, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama has worked to foster unity among all schools.

Throughout Tibetan history, these traditions have had a profound influence on one another. In the 19th century, the rimé (nonsectarian) movement emphasized the value of each school. The current Dalai Lama continues this legacy, especially in the context of preserving Tibetan Buddhism in exile.

Foundational Practices

All Tibetan Buddhist schools emphasize a foundational set of practices known as ngondro, or foundational practices. Practitioners often undertake these before engaging in more advanced teachings, particularly tantric practices. Ngondro is traditionally divided into two stages: general contemplations that establish the motivation for practice, and specific ritual practices that purify obscurations, generate merit, and open the student to the blessings of the lineage.

The first stage consists of the four thoughts that turn the mind toward the dharma:

1. The rarity and preciousness of human birth
2. The impermanence of all things
3. The law of karma—cause and effect
4. The pervasive suffering of samsara, or cyclic existence

These reflections serve to awaken a deep sense of urgency and direction on the Buddhist path. Traditional presentations describe in detail the six realms of rebirth and the consequences of unwholesome actions. Modern teachers, particularly those teaching in Western contexts, may instead frame these contemplations in psychological or existential terms, focusing on their potential for transforming the mind.

The second stage involves a series of ritualized practices, typically performed in retreat or as part of a daily regimen. Though details vary by lineage, the core practices usually include:

• Bodily prostrations, which express devotion and purify pride
• Recitation of the Hundred-Syllable Mantra of Vajrasattva, the buddha of purification
• Mandala offerings, which cultivate generosity and nonattachment
• Guru yoga, in which the student visualizes their root teacher as inseparable from a central lineage figure, such as Padmasambhava, Tsongkhapa, or the Karmapa.

Traditionally, practitioners repeat each practice 100,000 times or more, although this number is not always required. Many practitioners today incorporate these foundational practices into their daily routines, especially when on pilgrimage or visiting monasteries.

Ngondro is regarded as an essential preparation, not only for advanced tantric practices and meditation but also for grounding students in ethics, devotion, and mental clarity. While various adaptations have been made for modern students, the foundational practices remain central in all Tibetan Buddhist schools.

Lojong and Tonglen

Lojong, or “mind training,” is a key Tibetan Buddhist method for transforming self-centeredness and cultivating compassion. The practice aims to shift the focus from oneself to others, helping practitioners develop resilience, emotional openness, and altruistic intention. First systematized in the Kadam school, or Kadampa, during the 11th century, lojong was later adopted by all major Tibetan traditions.

Lojong teachings draw from Indian sources, especially the teachings of Atisha (982–1054) and Shantideva’s Way of the Bodhisattva (Skt.: Bodhicaryavatara), an influential Mahayana text that outlines the bodhisattva’s path of wisdom and compassion. Tibetan teachers drew from these sources in compiling lists of short, memorable slogans designed to be internalized and applied in daily life. Examples include: “If you can practice even when distracted, you are well trained,” and “Don’t wait in ambush,” meaning don’t hold on to grudges, waiting for the perfect moment to take revenge.

These slogans foster a mindset of equanimity and empathy, enabling practitioners to utilize challenging circumstances as a means for self-cultivation. Lojong is often practiced in conjunction with meditation, contemplation, and ethical discipline.

One of the most widely taught lojong practices is tonglen, also known as “sending and taking.” In this visualization-based meditation, the practitioner breathes in the suffering of others—perhaps imagining it as a thick, black smoke—and allows it to dissolve in the heart. On the outbreath, one sends out healing, peace, or happiness, represented as light or fresh air. This exchange inverts the typical habits of avoiding pain and prioritizing personal comfort.

Tonglen can be practiced in formal sitting meditation or “on the spot” during emotionally charged situations. As American Buddhist teacher Pema Chödrön notes, it is especially powerful when applied to personal challenges. While widely accessible, tonglen can be emotionally intense, and beginners are often advised to begin under the guidance of a teacher.

Together, lojong and tonglen provide practical tools for cultivating compassion and embracing adversity on the path to awakening.

Chöd

Chöd, meaning “severance” or “cutting through,“ is one of Tibetan Buddhism’s most evocative practices. Drawing on Mahayana philosophy and tantric ritual, chöd challenges practitioners to confront and relinquish deep-rooted attachments, especially the attachment to the self. In its central visualization, practitioners offer their bodies as a feast to demons, spirits, and obstructive forces, a radical act of generosity that embodies the Mahayana ideal of compassion. By severing ego-clinging and fear, self-centeredness is transformed into empathy and the wish to alleviate the suffering of others.

Ritual instruments play a key role in chöd practice. A chöda (a large drum) and kangling (a trumpet made from a human femur) summon spirits to the feast, while a karika (a curved ritual knife) symbolizes cutting through attachment. Combined with haunting melodies and chants, these elements help create an atmosphere that intensifies the practice.

Chöd is traditionally performed in charnel grounds, graveyards, or other sites associated with death. These settings are deliberately designed to evoke fear by bringing practitioners face-to-face with the impermanence of life. In some Tibetan regions, chöd has even been integrated into sky burial rites, where the physical body is cut and offered to scavenging animals, mirroring the symbolic offering in the practice.

In addition to personal practice, chöd has long served a healing and protective function in Tibetan communities. Practitioners may perform chöd on behalf of those who are sick, suffering, or believed to be afflicted by harmful forces. The practice is thought to dispel obstacles, clear karmic blockages, and restore energetic balance, functions that continue to make chöd a popular form of monastic and lay practice.

Although chöd has roots in Indian Buddhism—especially in the “pacification of suffering” (Tib.: zhi byed) teachings of Padamapa Sangye (ca. 11th–12th)—it was fully developed in Tibet. The renowned female practitioner Machig Labdron (1055–1149) synthesized Indian tantric methods with Tibetan elements, creating her own lineage of Mahamudra chöd. This version of the practice became especially influential in the Nyingma, Kagyu, and Bön traditions.

In contemporary contexts, especially in the West, the demons and spirits of chöd are often interpreted as “inner demons”—habitual emotions, mental afflictions, and psychological fears. This framing is also found in older Tibetan texts, but it has gained prominence in the modern era. Whether understood literally or symbolically, chöd remains a powerful practice for cutting through self-grasping and cultivating fearless compassion.

Dzogchen and Mahamudra

Dzogchen (“great perfection”) and Mahamudra (“great seal”) are two advanced forms of Tibetan Buddhist meditation. Dzogchen is emphasized in the Nyingma tradition, while Mahamudra is central to the Kagyu tradition. Both trace their origins to Indian Buddhist teachings and were refined and systematized in Tibet. Scholars have noted similarities between Dzogchen and Chinese Chan, as both meditative approaches emphasize the direct realization of the mind’s nature. However, these traditions developed largely independently of each other. Over time, numerous masters adopted Dzogchen and Mahamudra practices. Even the Fifth Dalai Lama, a major Gelug political and religious figure, studied Dzogchen with a Nyingma teacher. 

Both meditation systems point to the natural clarity and awareness of the mind, not something to be created but something to be recognized. Instead of focusing on an external object, such as the breath, practitioners are guided to rest in open awareness and observe consciousness itself. Central to this process is the use of “pointing-out instructions” (Tib.: ngo sprod), in which a qualified teacher directly introduces the student to the nature of mind. These instructions may be drawn from traditional texts or given spontaneously, depending on the teacher and the context. 

Dzogchen and Mahamudra are sometimes described as “effortless” paths, but they are not casual or easy to follow. Foundational practices typically precede them, often including tantric visualizations, mantra recitation, and ethical training. Practitioners must be well prepared and receive instruction from a skilled teacher. Without sufficient grounding, there is a risk of misunderstanding these subtle teachings.

While traditionally reserved for advanced students, some modern lamas have made these teachings more accessible to a broader audience. Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche (1920–1996), for example, was known for giving pointing-out instructions to visitors at his monastery in Kathmandu, sometimes even to beginners. His sons, including Mingyur Rinpoche and Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche, have helped bring these teachings to a global audience. Today, Dzogchen and Mahamudra are practiced by both lay and monastic practitioners, often integrated with modern retreats and online instruction. Though presented in new formats, they continue to offer a direct path to realizing the mind’s innate freedom and clarity.

Dark, Three-Year, and Wandering Retreats

In Tibetan Buddhism, long retreats are regarded as a powerful means of deepening meditative experience and strengthening commitment to the path. While most practitioners never undertake long retreats, those who do often follow specific formats that have developed over centuries. Among the most well-known are dark retreats, three-year retreats, and wandering retreats.

Dark retreats are in complete darkness, sometimes for weeks or even months. These retreats are closely associated with advanced Dzogchen practice, particularly the visionary techniques of thögal, and require significant prior training and experience. In complete sensory isolation, meditators report vivid sensory experiences that are said to reveal the nature of the mind and reality. While historically practiced in mountain hermitages, sealed huts, or caves, dark retreats have recently gained interest outside Buddhist contexts, often among individuals with little experience in meditation. This has raised concerns among traditional teachers, who emphasize the need for proper preparation and guidance.

The three-year retreat is a standard model across Tibetan schools today, though it only became widespread in the 19th century. The tradition was formalized for Mahamudra practitioners, drawing on the Kalachakra Tantra to determine the retreat’s precise length: three years, three months, and three days. Typically, a three-year retreat is conducted with a group in a remote setting, although in the Gelug tradition, it is often undertaken alone. Today, completing a three-year retreat usually confers the title of lama or teacher (see below). 

In a wandering retreat, practitioners travel from place to place, spending time in isolated hermitages or wilderness areas without settling in one location for an extended period. This style was popularized by Milarepa, the renowned Tibetan yogi and poet, and has been practiced for centuries by devoted meditators. Mingyur Rinpoche (b. 1975) continued this tradition by undertaking a wandering retreat from 2011 to 2015 across India and Nepal.

Each retreat style reflects a different way of deepening one’s commitment to the path, whether through seclusion, structured practice, or the open journey of the wandering mendicant.

Lamas, Rinpoches, and Tulkus

Monastics have long been central to Tibetan Buddhism. Major monasteries once housed thousands of monastics, and even small villages typically supported at least one monastic institution. Families often encouraged one child to ordain as a way to generate merit. Tibetan monastics usually devote their days to study, ritual, and mentoring junior monastics, rather than to solitary meditation. Some undertake extended retreats, but in hermitages away from the main monastery. Most monastics remain celibate, though some lineages—such as the Sakya and Nyingma traditions of lay tantric yogis (ngagpa)—integrate family life with serious practice. Nuns have historically received less institutional support and recognition, though many have been respected practitioners and teachers in their own right.   

The title Lama, translating the Sanskrit word guru, refers to a revered teacher. Traditionally, the term did not imply specific attainment, but today, it often refers to someone who has completed a three-year retreat. It is also used as an honorific for both monks and lay teachers. Nuns are commonly addressed as ani, while rinpoche, meaning “precious one,” is typically reserved for high-ranking teachers, especially those recognized as tulkus.

A tulku is believed to be the reincarnation of a previous master who returns to continue guiding students. Recognized in childhood through divination or ritual tests, tulkus are raised and educated within their predecessor’s monastery. They may be male or female, monastic or lay. The tulku system emerged in the 12th and 13th centuries and has since become deeply embedded in Tibetan religious institutions. Tulkus often inherit the residence and resources of their previous incarnation, known as a labrang, which can lead to disputes over succession and control.

The most widely known tulku is the Dalai Lama, regarded as the fourteenth incarnation in his line. A few Western children have also been identified as tulkus, though most have not undergone complete traditional training. In recent decades, some senior lamas have increasingly raised questions about reforming the tulku system to meet the challenges of modernity.

The Office of the Dalai Lama

The Fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, belongs to a lineage that extends back over five centuries and is the most well-known Tibetan Buddhist teacher alive today. The title Dalai Lama, meaning “ocean of wisdom,” was first bestowed upon Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588) by the Mongol ruler Altan Khan (1508–1582). It was later retroactively applied to two earlier figures, making Sonam Gyatso the Third Dalai Lama.

Over time, the Dalai Lama lineage became closely associated with Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion and patron deity of Tibet, and came to hold both religious and political authority. This dual role culminated in the leadership of the Fifth Dalai Lama (1617–1682), who unified much of the Tibetan plateau under Gelug rule, established a centralized government, and began construction of the Potala Palace in Lhasa, the symbolic and administrative seat of the Dalai Lamas. Under his leadership, rival traditions such as Bön and Jonang were suppressed, and some of their monasteries and texts were destroyed.

Not all Dalai Lamas exercised significant authority. Several died young under mysterious circumstances, while others, such as the Sixth Dalai Lama (1683–1706), were more famous for their poetry and unconventional lifestyle than for governance. The Thirteenth Dalai Lama (1879–1933) sought to modernize Tibet and resist foreign influence, though his efforts met with limited success.

The current Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, was recognized as a tulku in childhood and assumed leadership just as the Chinese People’s Liberation Army asserted control over Tibet. Following a failed uprising in 1959, he fled to India, where he established a government-in-exile and promoted nonviolence, human rights, and the preservation of Tibetan culture. He is the first Dalai Lama to speak directly to a global audience, and his teachings on compassion, secular ethics, and interfaith dialogue have earned him respect well beyond Buddhist circles.

Now in his 90s, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama travels less, and the future of the institution remains uncertain. He has at times questioned whether the lineage should continue, though in his memoir Voice for the Voiceless, he affirms that the next Dalai Lama will not be born in Chinese-controlled Tibet. Meanwhile, the Chinese government has asserted its authority to appoint the next Dalai Lama, raising the likelihood of competing successors and intensifying concerns over political interference. What happens after his death remains one of the most significant and unresolved questions facing Tibetan Buddhism.

Key Figures

Tibetan Buddhism places great emphasis on lineage and the teacher-student relationship. Most major schools trace their teachings back to Indian masters, Tibetan translators, and yogis who embodied and transmitted the tradition in unique ways. While Tibetan texts often record long lists of masters, a handful of figures stand out for shaping entire schools, writing foundational texts, or bringing Buddhism to new regions and audiences.

In the Nyingma tradition, Padmasambhava, also known as Guru Rinpoche, is revered as a second Buddha who subdued obstructive spirits in Tibet and concealed treasure texts (terma) for future generations. Yeshe Tsogyal, his consort, is likewise honored as a foundational figure. Later Nyingma masters such as Longchenpa (1308–1364) and Jigme Lingpa (1730–1798) helped systematize and transmit these teachings.

The Kagyu lineage traces its roots to Marpa the Translator and his famous disciple Milarepa (1040–1123), a hermit, poet, and yogi. Gampopa (1079–1153) integrated Indian Mahamudra and monastic training, establishing a lasting institutional foundation. His student Phagmodrupa (1110–1170) gave rise to numerous Kagyu sub-lineages.

The Sakya school was founded by Khon Konchok Gyalpo (1034–1102), whose family continues to lead the tradition. Sakya Pandita (1182–1251), a brilliant philosopher and debater, played a pivotal role in shaping the school’s intellectual legacy. His nephew, Drogön Chögyal Phagpa (1235–1280), became a spiritual advisor to the Mongol court.

The Gelug tradition centers on Tsongkhapa (1357–1419), a scholar who emphasized Madhyamaka philosophy, ethics, and the integration of tantra. His disciples, including Gyeltsab Dharma Rinchen (1364–432) and Khedrup Je (1385–1438), established the institutional base for the Gelug order and the future Dalai Lama lineage.

Female practitioners have also made significant contributions to the tradition. Machik Labdron (1055–1149) founded the Mahamudra chöd lineage, while Sera Khandro (1892–1940) and Shugsep Jetsun Rinpoche (1853/1865–1951) were respected treasure-revealers (Tib.: terton) and teachers in the 20th century. In the West, Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo and Pema Chödrön have become influential voices.

In modern times, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, the Sixteenth Karmapa (1924–1981), and Dudjom Rinpoche (1904–1987) were instrumental in reestablishing Tibetan Buddhism in exile. Their students continue to carry their teachings forward, ensuring that Tibetan Buddhism remains vibrant in both Asia and the global diaspora.

Key Texts

Tibetan Buddhism preserves one of the most expansive and diverse textual traditions in the Buddhist world. In addition to translating Indian and Chinese texts, Tibetan scholars and practitioners created a diverse body of indigenous literature, including philosophical treatises, ritual manuals, meditation instructions, poetry, biographies, and revealed treasure texts. These writings not only reflect the diverse schools and styles of practice but also demonstrate how Buddhist teachings were interpreted and adapted in Tibet and its surrounding regions.

Indian texts played a key role in the development of Tibetan Buddhist scholastics and practices. In the Nyingma Tradition, the Guhyagarbha Tantra is regarded as the root tantra of the entire Vajrayana path, laying out its visionary cosmology, deity practice, and view of emptiness. Atisha’s Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment (Skt.: Bodhipathapradipa) helped establish the lamrim, or “stages of the path,” genre in Tibet. A landmark example is Tsongkhapa’s Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment (Lamrim Chenmo), which outlines a comprehensive system of ethical, meditative, and philosophical training.

Another core Mahayana work is Shantideva’s Way of the Bodhisattva, translated into Tibetan in the 9th century and studied across all schools. Gyelsay Tongmay Sangpo’s 37 Practices of a Bodhisattva is another widely memorized and recited guide to the bodhisattva path.

Lojong, or mind-training, literature also holds a central place across Tibetan traditions. The Eight Verses of Thought Transformation by Langri Thangpa and the Seven-Point Mind Training by Chekawa Yeshe Dorje offer practical guidance on cultivating compassion and navigating adversity.

The Bardo Thodol, popularly known in the West as the Tibetan Book of the Dead, is a visionary guide to the after-death state known as the bardo. Although not historically emphasized in Tibet, the text gained fame through a 1927 English translation by Walter Evans-Wentz, and the idea of the bardo has become influential outside Tibetan Buddhism.

Tsangnyon Heruka’s (1452–1507) Life of Milarepa and Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa are beloved works that offer poetic insight into the hardship and realizations of one of Tibet’s most revered yogis.

These examples illustrate the breadth of Tibetan Buddhist expression, from tantric visionary revelation to heartfelt autobiography, but represent only a small portion of a vast and evolving canon that continues to inspire devotion and practice.

Tibetan Canons

Rather than relying solely on oral transmission, Tibetan Buddhists prioritized the preservation of texts as a cornerstone of religious life. Monasteries became centers of translation, study, and printing, producing a literary legacy unmatched in scope. Beginning in the 7th century, scholars worked to translate Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit, Chinese, Central Asian, and other languages into Tibetan. These efforts gave rise to a structured canon that not only preserved Indian Buddhist thought but also served as a foundation for Tibet’s own intellectual and ritual traditions.

The canon is traditionally divided into two main collections: the Kangyur (“Translated Words”), which contains texts attributed to the Buddha, and the Tengyur (“Translated Treatises”), which includes commentaries, treatises, and scholarly works by Indian and later Tibetan masters. Together, these collections encompass thousands of texts and preserve many texts from various traditions that no longer exist elsewhere. The 84,000 project is a significant effort to translate the entire Tibetan canon into English, approximately 231,800 pages of classical Tibetan!

Over time, different regions and monastic centers compiled their own editions of the canon, selecting which texts to include, which to exclude, and how to organize them. As a result, editions vary in size, content, and format. The texts were originally preserved as handwritten manuscripts, later carved onto woodblocks for printing, and now exist in digital formats. The scholar Gene Smith (1936–2010) helped pioneer the preservation of Tibetan texts, including the creation of a digital canon that fits on a single hard drive.

In addition to the Kangyur and Tengyur, there are other important school-specific collections. The Nyingma Kama, or Oral Instructions of the Ancient Ones, is central to the Nyingma tradition. Nyingma Buddhists also emphasize terma, or treasures, hidden by the tantric master Padmasambhava and his consort, Yeshe Tsogyal, for discovery by a future treasure-revealer (Tib.: terton). These can take the form of physical objects, visionary revelations, or scriptures revealed through dreams or meditation. Treasure texts are found not only in the Nyingma school but also in the Kagyu and Bön traditions. Many of these have been gathered into collections such as the Rinchen Terdzö (“Treasury of Precious Treasure Teachings”), which continues to be studied and transmitted.

Tibetan Buddhism in the West

Before the 20th century, Tibetan Buddhism was largely unknown in the West, but as travel became easier, it began to capture the imagination of spiritual seekers. In 1888, Theosophical Society cofounder Madame Blavatsky wrote about Tibetan mystics in The Secret Doctrine, helping shape romanticized views that persist to this day. Scholar Donald S. Lopez Jr. later critiqued these fantasies in his influential book Prisoners of Shangri-La.   

In the early 20th century, Tibet remained largely closed to most foreigners, but a few Europeans managed to gain access. Travelers like Alexandra David-Néel, Lama Anagarika Govinda, and Heinrich Harrer published popular accounts of their encounters with Tibetan Buddhism. Meanwhile, Christian missionaries attempted, largely unsuccessfully, to convert Tibetans, and the British launched a brief invasion in 1903.

Tibetan Buddhism began to reach broader Western audiences only after the 1959 Chinese invasion of Tibet. Following the Dalai Lama’s escape to India, many senior lamas also fled, reestablishing their traditions in exile. In 1958, Geshe Ngawang Wangyal founded the first Tibetan Buddhist center in the United States, the Lamaist Buddhist Monastery of America, in New Jersey. In the 1960s and ’70s, Western travelers encountered Tibetan teachers in India and Nepal. Some, like scholar Robert Thurman, took ordination and helped introduce the teachings back home.

As interest grew, lamas were invited to teach abroad. Chögyam Trungpa (1939–1987) became particularly influential in the United States, founding the Vajradhatu community, now known as Shambhala International. Tibetan scholars such as Geshe Lhundup Sopa (1923–2014) took academic posts, and Tibetan language and literature became subjects of serious study in select universities. The Dalai Lama’s first visit to the West came in 1979, and he gained international recognition after receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989.

Tibetan refugees gradually settled in Europe, North America, and other parts of the world, establishing new practice communities. Over time, Western-born students completed traditional training and became respected teachers, some of whom taught in both the West and Asia.

Today, all the major Tibetan schools maintain international dharma centers. While Tibetan Buddhism continues to evolve in new cultural contexts, its teachers and communities remain committed to preserving the tradition’s rich heritage.

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