Glossary

abhidharma

Skt.; Pali: abhidhamma; Ch.: apidamo; Tb.: chos mngon pa

The abhidharma is a body of Buddhist scholastic literature that systematically analyzes and categorizes mental and physical phenomena to clarify impermanence, nonself, causal relationships, and the processes underlying suffering and liberation. Abhidharma texts constitute one of the three major divisions of the Buddhist canon, alongside the sutras and the vinaya.

aging

Skt., Pali: jara; Ch.: lao; Tb.: rga ba

Aging is a fundamental condition of existence and a central concern of Buddhist reflection. Traditional accounts of the Buddha’s life highlight his encounter with old age, illness, and death as catalysts for renunciation and the formulation of the four noble truths. In Buddhist teachings, understanding aging as inevitable and unsatisfactory…

Amitabha

Skt.; Ch.: Amituo fo; Tb.: ‘od dpag med; Jp.: Amida butsu

Amitabha is a central buddha in Mahayana Buddhism, revered as the Buddha of Limitless Light and the presiding buddha of Sukhavati, the Western Pure Land. Also known as Amitayus, the Buddha of Infinite Life, Amitabha is especially important in Pure Land traditions, where devotion to him is linked to rebirth…

anatman

Skt.; Pali: anatta; Ch.: wuwo; Tb.: bdag med

Translated as nonself, no-self, or not-self, anatman is a foundational Buddhist teaching and the third of the three marks of existence. It holds that no permanent, independent self can be found within persons or phenomena. Instead, individuals are understood as dynamic aggregates arising through causes and conditions. Insight into nonself…

anger

Skt.: dvesa; Pali: dosa; Ch.: hui; Tb.: zhe sdang

Anger is one of the three poisons in Buddhist psychology, alongside attachment and ignorance. Anger is understood as a destructive mental affliction that distorts perception and fuels harmful speech and action. It is often compared to fire, as it consumes both the person who harbors it and those toward whom…

anitya, annica

Skt.: anitya; Pali: anicca; Ch.: wuchang; Tb.: mi rtag pa

Translated as impermanence, this is the first of the three marks of existence in Buddhist thought. It holds that all conditioned phenomena are unstable and subject to change because they arise in dependence on causes and conditions. Insight into impermanence undermines attachment and is essential to the development of wisdom…

anxiety

Whether it’s shortness of breath in a stressful situation, racing thoughts before bed, or uneasiness around social situations, we’re all familiar with anxiety in one form or another. Buddhist wisdom—including mindfulness practices—has been incorporated into many modern forms of therapy to help people understand and alleviate anxiety.

art.

It has played a central role in Buddhist cultures as a means of teaching, devotion, and practice. From early stupas and reliquaries to statues of buddhas and bodhisattvas, mandalas, murals, and ritual objects, Buddhist art has served symbolic and contemplative functions. These forms communicate core teachings, represent ideals of awakening,…

attachment

See: upadana

bardo

Tb.: bar do; Skt.: antarabhava; Ch.: zhongyin/zhongyu

Literally meaning between two, bardo refers to an intermediate state between death and rebirth, recognized in many Buddhist scholastic traditions. In Tibetan Buddhism, the bardo is elaborated as a series of transitional experiences that may include visions of peaceful and wrathful deities and is traditionally said to last up to…

bhavacakra

Skt.; Pali: bhavacakka; Ch.: youlun; Tb.: srid pa’i khor lo

Literally meaning wheel of existence, the bhavacakra is a visual representation of samsara and Buddhist cosmology. Commonly depicted on monastery walls, it illustrates the cycle of rebirth, typically showing the six realms of existence, the three poisons at the center, and the chain of dependent origination around the rim. It…

bodhi

Skt., Pali; Ch.: puti/jue; Tb.: byang chub

Translated as awakening or enlightenment, bodhi refers to both the goal and the fruition of Buddhist practice. It refers to a transformative insight into the nature of reality that removes ignorance and ends suffering. Classical sources described awakening as a direct realization of the four noble truths and the cessation…

bodhicitta

Skt., Pali; Ch.: putixin; Tb.: byang chub kyi sems

Literally meaning mind of awakening, bodhicitta is the aspiration to attain enlightenment for the benefit of all beings. Central to Mahayana Buddhism, it defines the motivation for the bodhisattva path and distinguishes it from paths aimed solely at individual practice. The cultivation of bodhicitta develops ethical conduct, meditation, and wisdom…

bodhisattva

Skt.; Pali: bodhisatta; Ch.: pusa; Tb.: byang chub sems dpa’

Literally meaning awakening being, a bodhisattva is one oriented toward attaining enlightenment. In early mainstream Buddhist traditions, the term refers specifically to the Buddha in his former lives as he progressed toward awakening. In Mahayana traditions, it refers to any practitioner who has generated bodhicitta and taken vows to seek…

Bon

Bon is an indigenous Tibetan religious tradition with deep pre-Buddhist roots that later developed in dialogue with Buddhism. Bon institutions and scriptures were systematized between the 10th and 11th centuries and incorporate many Buddhist doctrines, rituals, and cosmological elements alongside distinctive indigenous practices. Although Bon communities were historically marginalized and…

brahmavihara

Skt., Pali; Ch.: fanzhu; Tb.: tshad med bzhi

Often translated as divine abidings, sublime states, or four immeasurables, the brahmaviharas are four foundational ethical and meditative qualities cultivated in Buddhism: loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity. These qualities are developed through systematic contemplation and are understood to counter hatred, cruelty, envy, and partiality, thereby supporting both meditative concentration…

buddha

Skt., Pali; Ch.: fo; Tb.: sangs rgyas; Jp.: butsu; Kr.: pul

Literally meaning awakened or enlightened one, buddha is a title given to beings who have attained full enlightenment. The Buddha most commonly refers to Siddhartha Gautama, also known as Shakyamuni, following his enlightenment. In Buddhist cosmology, Shakyamuni is one of many buddhas who have appeared in the past and will…

buddha-nature

Skt.: buddhadhatu; Ch.: foxing; Tb.: sangs rgyas kyi khams

Buddha-nature is a Mahayana teaching that affirms the inherent potential of all sentient beings to attain buddhahood. Buddha-nature is often described as the mind’s intrinsic clarity or luminosity, obscured but not destroyed by defilements. Historically, this doctrine has been influential but also contested. Some Buddhist thinkers criticized buddha-nature teachings as…

Buddhism.

One of the world’s major religious and philosophical traditions, Buddhism is practiced by more than 500 million people worldwide. Rooted in the teachings of the Buddha, it offers a path for understanding suffering, cultivating wisdom, and living ethically through practices such as meditation, moral discipline, and insight. Over time, Buddhism…

calm abiding

See: shamatha

Chan Buddhism

Ch.: Chan; Jp.: Zen; Kr.: Seon; Vn.: Thien

A Chinese Mahayana Buddhist tradition centered on meditation and direct realization, Chan is traditionally traced to the legendary Indian monk Bodhidharma. The term chan derives from Sanskrit dhyana, meaning meditation, and reflects an emphasis on experiential insight. Chan teachings often stress that practice and awakening are inseparable, and the tradition…

compassion

See: karuna

consciousness

Skt.: vijnana; Pali: vinnana; Ch.: shi; Tb.: rnam par shes pa

A central concept in Buddhist theories of mind, consciousness refers to the moment-to-moment processes of knowing and awareness involved in perception and cognition. Consciousness is analyzed extensively in abhidharma traditions and receives particular emphasis in Yogacara Buddhism, which explores how consciousness structures experience and gives rise to the appearance of…

craving

Skt.: trsna; Pali: tanha; Ch.: ai; Tb.: sred pa

Craving refers to the habitual drive to seek pleasure, avoid pain, and secure a stable sense of self or existence. In classical Buddhist teaching, three forms are identified: craving for sensual pleasure, craving for continued existence, and craving for nonexistence. Craving is identified in the four noble truths as the…

Dalai Lama

Tb.: Da la’i bla ma

Dalai Lama is an honorific title bestowed on members of a prominent reincarnate lineage within the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. Dalai Lamas are traditionally regarded as a manifestation of Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion. The current Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935), is the fourteenth holder of this title…

dana

Skt., Pali; Ch.: bushi; Tb.: sbyin pa

Translated as giving or generosity, dana is a foundational ethical practice in Buddhism and the first of the perfections (paramitas). It involves the voluntary offering of material support, time, or care, especially to monastic communities, and is understood to generate merit and reduce attachment. Dana plays a central role in…

dependent origination

Skt.: pratityasamutpada; Pali: paticcasamuppada; Ch.: yuanqi; Tb.: rten cing ’brel bar ’byung ba

Also called dependent arising and interdependence. Dependent origination is a foundational Buddhist teaching that explains how phenomena arise, persist, and cease in dependence on causes and conditions, rather than existing independently or permanently. Often analyzed through the twelvefold chain describing the arising of suffering, the realization of dependent origination is…

dharma

Skt.; Pali: dhamma; Ch.: fa; Tb.: chos

A central Buddhist term with several related meanings, dharma most commonly refers to the Buddha’s teachings and the path it articulates. It can also refer to the fundamental principles or laws that govern reality, such as impermanence and dependent origination. In Buddhist philosophical analysis, particularly in abhidharma contexts, dharmas are…

Dogen Kigen

1200–1253

Dogen was a Japanese Buddhist monk and the founder of the Soto school of Zen Buddhism. After training in China, Dogen emphasized zazen (seated meditation) as the direct expression of awakening itself, articulated most fully in his Treasury of the True Dharma Eye (Shobogenzo). His teachings on practice-realization, time, and…

duhkha

Skt.; Pali: dukkha; Ch.: ku; Tb.: sdug bsngal

Commonly translated as suffering or unsatisfactoriness, duhkha names the pervasive instability and dissatisfaction of conditioned existence. It is articulated in the first of the four noble truths and characterizes samsara, the cycle of birth and rebirth. Recognizing duhkha is foundational to the Buddhist path, motivating the pursuit of liberation through…

dzogchen

Tb.: rdzog chen

Usually translated as great perfection or great completion, dzogchen is a Tibetan meditative and philosophical tradition centered on recognizing the mind’s innate, primordial awareness. Its teachings range from preliminary practices and visualization to direct instructions that emphasize effortlessness and immediacy rather than gradual cultivation. Dzogchen is most closely associated with…

eightfold path

Skt.: astangamarga; Pali: atthangikamagga; Ch.: bazhengdao; Tb.: lam yan lag brgyad

The core framework of Buddhist practice, the eightfold path is identified as the fourth noble truth that leads to awakening and liberation from suffering. Traditionally articulated as eight interrelated factors encompassing wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental discipline, the eightfold path comprises right views, right intention, right speech, right conduct, right…

emptiness

Skt.: sunyata; Pali: sunnata; Tb.: stong pa nyid; Ch.: kong

Emptiness is a central Buddhist concept describing the absence of inherent, independent existence. In early Buddhist teachings, emptiness is closely tied to nonself, emphasizing that mind and body lack a permanent essence. In Mahayana Buddhism, especially in Madhyamaka philosophy, emptiness is extended to all phenomena, which are understood to exist…

engaged Buddhism.

Engaged Buddhism is a modern movement that applies Buddhist ethical principles—such as compassion, nonviolence, and dependent origination—to social, political, and environmental issues. Although the term engaged Buddhism was coined and popularized in Western contexts by Thich Nhat Hanh, the approach draws on earlier Asian currents, including late 19th- and early…

enlightenment

See: bodhi

equanimity

See: upekkhā

four noble truths

Skt.: catvary aryasatyani; Pali: cattari ariyasaccani; Ch.: si shengdi; Tb.: ’phags pa’i bden pa bzhi

More literally meaning four truths of noble ones, these teachings form the foundation of the Buddha’s path. They diagnose the human condition and its remedy: the reality of suffering, its causes, the possibility of its cessation, and the path to its end, traditionally identified as the eightfold path.

gratitude

Skt.: krtajnata; Pali: kattannuta; Ch.: ganxie; Tb.: bka' drin

Literally meaning knowing what has been done, or in Tibetan usage remembering kindness, it refers to mindful recognition of benefits received from others. While not typically foregrounded as a category in early Buddhist doctrinal lists, gratitude is praised as a wholesome mental quality, especially in relation to parents, teachers, benefactors,…

guru

Skt.; Pali: garu; Ch.: shi; Tb.: bla ma

Literally meaning heavy or weighty, guru refers to a respected teacher whose authority derives from learning, practice, and lineage. While teachers are important across Buddhist traditions, the role of the guru is especially central in Vajrayana Buddhism, where the guru transmits initiations, oral instructions, and tantric practices. In this context,…

hungry ghost

Skt.: preta; Pali: peta; Ch.: egui; Tb.: yi dwags

Hungry ghosts are beings reborn through craving and greed, classified as one of the six realms of rebirth in Buddhist cosmology. Hungry ghosts are depicted as suffering extreme hunger and thirst, symbolizing the karmic consequences of attachment, miserliness, and unfulfilled desire. Many Buddhist traditions perform offerings and rituals to alleviate…

ignorance

Skt.: avidya; Pali: avijja; Tb.: ma rig pa; Ch.: wuming

Ignorance is the fundamental misapprehension of reality that underlies suffering in Buddhist thought. Ignorance refers to a deep misunderstanding of the nature of phenomena, especially impermanence, nonself, and dependent origination. It is identified as the root of the three poisons and the starting point of the chain of dependent origination,…

impermanence

See: anitya, annica

insight meditation

rooted in Pali: vipassana

A modern umbrella term for contemplative practices, insight meditation examines bodily and mental processes to cultivate insight into impermanence, suffering, and nonself. While grounded in Theravada vipassana traditions of Southeast Asia, insight meditation, as it is commonly practiced today, took shape in Western contexts in the 20th century, where it…

interbeing.

Interbeing is a modern term coined by Thich Nhat Hanh to express radical interconnectedness. While the Buddhist doctrine of dependent origination explains how distinct phenomena arise through specific causes and conditions, interbeing is related but stresses their ongoing mutual presence and inseparability. The term is often used in engaged Buddhist…

interdependence

[dependent origination]

jhana

Pali; Skt.: dhyana; Ch.: chan; Jp.: zen; Tb.: bsam gtan

Translated as meditative absorption, jhana refers to states of deep concentration in which the mind is withdrawn from sensory distraction and unified with a meditation object. These absorptions cultivate mental stability, clarity, and pleasure born of concentration. In Buddhist practice, Jhana is understood as a preparatory discipline rather than insight…

joy

See: mudita

karma

Skt.: karman; Pali: kamma; Ch.: ye; Tb.: las

Literally translated as action, karma refers to the principle by which intentional actions shape future experience, with wholesome actions tending toward happiness and unwholesome actions toward suffering. In Buddhists teachings, karma is not fate or divine judgment but a causal process grounded in intention. Understanding karma is central to Buddhist…

karuna

Skt.; Pali: karuna; Ch.: bei; Tb.: snying rje

Translated as compassion, karuna is a core Buddhist value across traditions. Together with loving-kindness, sympathetic joy, and equanimity, it is one of the brahmaviharas, or four immeasurables. Compassion involves recognizing others’ suffering and cultivating the intention to alleviate it. In engaged Buddhist contexts, karuna is often emphasized as compassion put…

koans

Ch.: gong’an; Jp.: koan; Kr.: kongan

Literally meaning public cases or precedents, koans are a key feature of East Asian Buddhist traditions, especially Chan and Zen. They are brief questions, stories, or sayings attributed to early Chan masters that often appear paradoxical or illogical. Koans are used in teacher-student practice to interrupt habitual patterns of conceptual…

lama

Skt.: guru; Pali: garu; Ch.: shi; Tb.: bla ma

The Tibetan term for a spiritual teacher or guide. In Tibetan Buddhism, a lama is a qualified teacher authorized to transmit teachings and guide students in practice, often through personal instruction. While some lamas complete the traditional three-year retreat, the title more broadly reflects training, lineage recognition, and teaching responsibilities…

Lotus Sutra.

An influential Mahayana scripture composed around the 1st–2nd century CE, known for its parables teaching skillful means (upaya) and the Buddha’s eternal presence. The Lotus Sutra presents enlightenment as universally accessible and reinterprets earlier teachings as provisional. It is central to Nichiren schools, which regard it as the sole valid…

Loving-kindness

Mahayana

Skt.: mahayana; Ch.: dasheng; Tb.: theg pa chen po

Literally meaning great vehicle, Mahayana is a broad family of Buddhist traditions that developed in India several centuries after the Buddha’s death and later spread across East and Central Asia. Mahayana teachings emphasize the bodhisattva path, the ideal of awakening for the benefit of all beings, along with doctrines such…

mandala

Skt.; Pali: mandala; Ch.: mantuluo; Tb.: kyil ‘khor

Literally meaning circle, a mandala is a symbolic diagram used to represent the Buddhist cosmos, enlightened realms, the presence of a deity, and even political power. Mandalas are especially prominent in Vajrayana rituals and art, including Tibetan Buddhist sand mandalas, where they function as aids for meditation and visualization. Many…

mantra

Skt.; Pali: mantra; Ch.: zhenyan; Tb.: sngags

A mantra is a short, repeated sequence of syllables used in Buddhist ritual and meditation. Often translated as spell, charm, or magical formula, mantras may or may not have literal semantic meaning and are valued for their sound, rhythm, and ritual efficacy. They are used to invoke deities, focus the…

meditation

Skt., Pali: bhavana; Ch.: xiuxi; Tb.: sgom pa

In Buddhist contexts, meditation literally means cultivation or bringing into being. It refers to a wide range of practices aimed at developing the mind, including ethical and emotional cultivation, analytical contemplation, seated meditation, and visualization. Meditation is central to the Buddhist path as a means of transforming perception, attention, and…

metta

Skt.: maitri; Pali: metta; Ch.: ci/cibei; Tb.: byams pa

Translated as loving-kindness or friendliness, metta is one of the four immeasurable qualities, alongside compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity. Traditionally, metta is cultivated as a direct antidote to hatred, ill will, anger, and aversion. In modern Western contexts, loving-kindness meditation is often practiced as a stand-alone technique, though it historically…

middle way

Skt.: madhyamapratipad; Pali: majjhimapaiipada; Ch.: zhongdao; Tb.: dbu ma’i lam

The Buddhist path that avoids the extremes of self-indulgence and severe asceticism, both of which the Buddha practiced before awakening. The term also names a philosophical position articulated by Nagarjuna and systematized in the Madhyamaka tradition, which rejects both eternalism and nihilism in favor of understanding reality through emptiness and…

mindfulness

See: sati

mudita

Skt., Pali; Tb.: dga’ ba; Ch.: xi

Translated as joy or sympathetic joy, mudita is the practice of delighting in the happiness and good fortune of others. It functions as a direct antidote to envy and resentment. Mudita is one of the four brahmaviharas, or four immeasurables, cultivated to develop emotional balance and tranquility.

Nagarjuna

Ch.: Longshu; Tb.: Klu sgrub

Nagarjuna was an influential Indian Buddhist philosopher active around the 2nd century CE and traditionally regarded as the founder of the Madhyamaka school. He is best known for the Verses on the Middle Way (Mulamadhamakakarika), which uses the concept of emptiness to dismantle fixed views and avoid the extremes of…

Nichiren Buddhism.

Nichiren Buddhism is a Japanese Buddhist tradition founded by Nichiren (1222–1282) that centers on exclusive devotion to the Lotus Sutra. Nichiren taught that the Lotus Sutra reveals the universal potential for enlightenment and provides the most effective path in a degenerate age. The core practice is chanting Namu Myoho Renge…

nirvana

Skt.: nirvana; Pali: nibbana; Ch.: niepan; Tb.: mya ngan las ’das pa

Literally meaning extinction or blowing out, nirvana is the ultimate goal of the Buddhist path. It refers to liberation from suffering and the cycle of rebirth through the cessation of greed, hatred, and delusion. Because nirvana transcends ordinary experience and conceptual thought, it is often described apophatically, in terms of…

nonself

See: anatman

Pali canon.

The earliest surviving collection of Buddhist scriptures, the Pali canon consists of the Vinaya (monastic discipline), Sutta (discourses), and Abhidhamma (systematic teachings). The Pali canon purports to preserve an oral lineage of early Buddhist teachings and was first written down in Sri Lanka around the turn of the common era.…

paramitas

Skt.: paramita; Pali: parami; Ch.: boluomi; Tb.: pha rol tu phyin pa

Translated as the perfections, the paramitas are virtues cultivated on the path to awakening. In Mahayana Buddhism, they are associated with the bodhisattva path, commonly enumerated as: generosity, morality, patience, effort, concentration, and wisdom, with some lists also including skillful means, vow, power, and knowledge. In Theravada traditions, the paramitas…

pilgrimage

Skt., Pali: yatra; Ch.: chaosheng; Tb.: lam ‘gro

Pilgrimage has been an important Buddhist practice since early times. Sites associated with the Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, first teaching, and death are regarded as especially sacred. Visiting these places is understood to cultivate devotion and generate merit. Over time, additional pilgrimage sites connected to relics, temples, teachers, and sacred landscapes…

precepts

Skt.: siksapada; Pali: sikkhapada; Ch.: xuechu; Tb.: bslab pa’i gzhi;

Buddhist precepts are ethical guidelines observed by both lay and monastic Buddhists to support moral discipline. The precepts are closely associated with right speech, right action, and right livelihood. Most lay practitioners undertake five precepts: refraining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false or harmful speech, and intoxication.

pure land

Ch.: jingtu; Tb.: dag pa’i zhing; Jp.: jodo; Kr.: cheongt’o

Literally meaning purified ground, the term pure land has several related meanings in Buddhist usage. It can refer to a buddha-field (Skt.: buddhakestra), an auspicious realm purified of suffering and moral defilement; more specifically, to Sukhavati, the buddha-field of Amitabha; or to a family of Mahayana traditions centered on devotion…

rebirth

Skt.: punarbhava; Ch.: houyou; Tb.: yang srid pa; often discussed in terms of jati, or birth

In Buddhism, rebirth refers to a beginningless process in which a continuum of consciousness takes on successive forms of existence. The cycle operates according to karma, with intentional actions conditioning the circumstances of future births. Liberation from rebirth, and thus from suffering, is a central aim of the Buddhist path.

refuge

Skt., Pali: sarana; Ch.: guiyi; Tb.: skyabs

Taking refuge in the three jewels—the Buddha, dharma (teachings), and sangha (community)—is a foundational Buddhist commitment. It expresses trust in these sources as guides on the path and marks one’s orientation toward enlightenment and liberation. This commitment cultivates faith, ethical responsibility, and sustained dedication to Buddhist practice.

retreat

Skt.: varsa; Pali: vassa; Ch.: anju; Tb.: dbyar gnas

Retreat is a period of temporary withdrawal from ordinary activities to focus on meditation, study, and contemplative discipline. While the classical varsa refers to the monastic rainy season retreat, retreat practices today take many forms across Buddhist traditions and are undertaken by both monastic and lay practitioners. By limiting everyday…

ritual

Skt., Pali: vidhi; Ch.: yigui; Tb.: cho ga

A ritual is a structured sequence of prescribed actions with a defined beginning, middle, and end. In Buddhism, rituals range from everyday practices such as bowing and chanting to formal ceremonies like ordination and consecration. While often formalized, Buddhist rituals have also been adaptive and innovative, frequently incorporating local cultural…

samadhi

Skt., Pali; Ch.: chan; Tb.: bsam gtan

Translated as concentration or meditative absorption, samadhi refers to a state in which the mind becomes unified and steadily focused on its object. Through this collectedness, mental disturbances subside and clarity deepens. In Buddhist practice, samadhi supports ethical discipline and provides a stable basis for insight into the nature of…

samsara

Skt., Pali; Ch.: lunhui; Tb.: ʼkhor ba

Literally meaning wandering, samsara refers to the ongoing cycle of birth, death, and rebirth driven by ignorance and karma. In Buddhist cosmology, samsara encompasses six realms of rebirth: gods (devas), titans (asuras), humans, animals, hungry ghosts (pretas), and hell beings. Human birth is considered especially valuable because it offers balanced…

sangha

Skt.; Pali: sangha; Ch.: sengqie; Tb.: dge ’dun

The sangha (community) is one of the three jewels of Buddhism, alongside the Buddha and the dharma (teachings). Traditionally, sangha refers to the community of ordained monastics who preserve and transmit the teachings. In contemporary usage, the term is often extended to include lay Buddhist communities and practice groups.

sati

Pali; Skt.: smrti; Ch.: nian; Tb.: dran pa

A term meaning memory or recollection, commonly translated as mindfulness. In Buddhist practice, sati refers to the capacity to remember and sustain attention on ethical commitments and objects of meditation, such as the body, breath, feelings, or mind. Traditionally embedded within a broader path of ethical and contemplative training, mindfulness…

Secular Buddhism.

Secular Buddhism is a modern approach that emphasizes ethical practice, meditation, and psychological insight while downplaying or rejecting Buddhism’s supernatural elements, such as rebirth or cosmology. Emerging primarily in Western contexts in the 20th century, Secular Buddhism interprets Buddhist teachings in dialogue with modern science, humanism, and philosophy, presenting them…

Seon Buddhism

Kr.; Skt.: dhyana; Pali: jhana; Ch.: chan; Tb.: bsam gtan; Jp.: zen; Vn.: thien

The Korean branch of the East Asian meditation tradition that also includes Chan, Zen, and Thien. Seon practice integrates doctrinal study with rigorous meditative discipline. It is especially known for hwadu practice, which employs a critical phrase or question to cut through discursive thinking and provoke direct insight.

shamatha

Skt., Pali: samatha; Ch.: zhi; Tb.: zhi gnas

Translated as calm abiding, shamatha is a meditative practice that cultivates mental stability, clarity, and tranquility through sustained concentration. On its own, calm abiding pacifies mental agitation; when paired with insight (vipassana), it supports the direct understanding that leads to the weakening and eventual cessation of mental afflictions.

Siddartha Gautama

Pali: Siddhattha Gotama

The name of the historical Buddha, who is also known as Shakyamuni. Siddhartha means one who achieves his goal, while Gautama is his family or clan name. The title Shakyamuni means sage of the Shakya tribe, identifying him as an awakened teacher from the Shakya tribal lineage.

suffering

See: duhkha; dukkha

sutra

Skt.; Pali: sutta; Ch.: jing; Tb.: mdo

Originally referring to the Buddha’s remembered sayings and sermons transmitted orally by his followers, sutra came to designate a major genre of Buddhist scripture. Sutras present teachings through discourses, dialogues, and narrative settings and form a central part of Buddhist canons in every tradition.

tantra

Skt.; Ch.: mijiao; Tb.: ngags

Tantra is a genre of Buddhist texts and practices that form the basis of Vajrayana Buddhism. Indian Buddhist tantras were largely composed between the 7th and 11th centuries and emphasize ritual, mantra, visualization, and esoteric methods aimed at rapid awakening. Although many tantras are traditionally attributed to Shakyamuni Buddha and…

Tara

Skt.; Ch.: Duoluo; Tb.: Sgrol ma

Tara is a prominent female bodhisattva in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, revered as a swift protector who delivers devotees from fear, danger, and suffering. Tara is understood as an emanation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara and embodies active compassion. She is commonly depicted as a youthful figure, often green or white,…

Theravada

Skt.: sthaviravada/sthaviranikaya, debated

Interpreted as the way of the elders, Theravada is one of the major traditions of Buddhism. Since the 11th century, it has been dominant in Sri Lanka and much of Southeast Asia and is closely associated with the study and practice of the Pali canon, emphasizing monastic discipline, meditation, and…

Thich Nhat Hanh

1926–2022

Globally renowned Vietnamese Thien Buddhist monk and founder of the Order of Interbeing. He was a major proponent of engaged Buddhism, which advocates for Buddhist-informed political activity in response to social injustice.

Thien Buddhism

Vn.; Skt.: dhyana; Pali: jhana; Ch.: chan; Tb.: bsam gtan; Jp.: zen; Kr.: seon

Thien Buddhism is the Vietnamese expression of East Asian meditation traditions that also include Chan, Zen, and Seon. In Vietnam, Thien historically developed alongside Pure Land and Theravada Buddhism and has been shaped through sustained interaction with both, combining meditation practice with devotional and doctrinal elements.

three jewels

Skt.: ratnatraya/triratna; Pali: ratanattaya/tiratana; Ch.: sanbao; Tb.: dkon mchog gsum

The three jewels are the three primary objects of veneration in Buddhism: the Buddha, the dharma (teachings), and the sangha (community). Formally taking refuge in the three jewels is commonly understood as the defining act of becoming a Buddhist.

three marks of existence

Skt.: trilaksana; Pali: tilakkhana; Ch.: sanxiang; Tb.: mtshan myid gsum/phyag rgya gsum

The three marks of existence are the three fundamental characteristics of conditioned existence in Buddhist thought: impermanence, suffering or unsatisfactoriness, and nonself. Enlightenment is often described as the direct realization of these three marks in all phenomena.

three poisons

Skt.: trivisa; Pali: tivisa; Ch.: sandu; Tb.: dug gsum

The three poisons are the three fundamental mental afflictions of greed, hatred, and delusion that drive suffering and the cycle of rebirth. In Buddhist teachings, these poisons are counteracted through cultivating their corresponding antidotes: generosity, loving-kindness, and wisdom.

Tibetan Buddhism

A form of Buddhism that integrates Mahayana philosophy with Vajrayana ritual and practice, developing from the 7th century onward. Tibetan Buddhism emerged through the transmission of Indian and Chinese Buddhist teachings and their interaction with indigenous Tibetan religious and cultural traditions. While its schools differ in history and emphasis, they…

tonglen

Tb.: gtong len

Literally meaning sending and taking, tonglen is a Tibetan Buddhist contemplative practice in which one visualizes taking in the suffering of others on the inbreath and sending out compassion, relief, or happiness on the outbreath. It is a central method in lojong (mind-training), using empathy and compassion to transform adversity…

two truths

Skt., Pali: dvasatya; Ch.: er di; Tb.: bden pa gnyis

The two truths are a key Buddhist framework distinguishing between conventional truth, the way phenomena appear and function in everyday experience, and ultimate truth, the insight into emptiness and interdependence. Mahayana philosophy holds that these two truths are inseparable: Conventional truth underpins ethical practice and communication, while ultimate truth enables…

upadana

Skt., Pali: upadana; Ch.: qu; Tb.: len pa). Often translated as attachment, clinging, or grasping, upadana refers to the intensified form of craving (tanha) in which one fixates on objects, views, identities, or practices as sources of lasting satisfaction. In Buddhist teachings, attachment sustains suffering by reinforcing ignorance and binding…

upekkha

Skt.: upeksa; Pali: upekkha; Ch.: she; Tb.: btang snyoms

Translated as equanimity, upekkha is the cultivation of a balanced and impartial mental state free from attachment and aversion. As one of the four immeasurables, it stabilizes and universalizes loving-kindness, compassion, and sympathetic joy by extending them evenly to all beings without preference or bias.

Vajrayana

Skt.: vajrayana; Ch.: jingang sheng; Tb.: rdo rje theg pa

Often translated as the diamond or thunderbolt vehicle, Vajrayana is a form of Mahayana Buddhism that employs esoteric methods to accelerate the path to awakening. It builds upon Mahayana philosophy and ethics while emphasizing additional practices such as devotion to the guru, mantra recitation, tantric initiation, ritual, and deity yoga.…

vinaya

Skt., Pali; Ch.: lu; Tb.: dul ba

Literally meaning discipline, the vinaya is the body of texts that sets out the rules and ethical guidelines governing Buddhist monastic life. Along with the sutras and abhidharma, it forms one of the three main divisions of the Buddhist canon. The vinaya also preserves narrative accounts explaining the origins of…

vipassana

Skt.: vipasyana; Pali: vipassana; Ch.: neiguan; Tb.: lhag mthong

Translated as insight, vipassana refers to the meditative understanding of the three marks of existence: impermanence, suffering, and nonself. Together with calm abiding (shamatha), it forms one of the two complementary dimensions of Buddhist meditative cultivation leading to enlightenment. Through late-19th- and early-20th-century Buddhist modernism, vipassana has been reformulated as…

zazen

Jp.; Ch.: zuochan; Kr.: chwaseon

Literally meaning seated meditation, zazen refers to the foundational meditative practice of the East Asian Chan, Zen, Seon, and Thien traditions. Practiced in an upright seated posture with regulated breath and attention, zazen cultivates concentration, clarity, and direct awareness, and is understood as the embodiment of awakening itself.

Zen

Jp.; Skt.: dhyana; Pali: jhana; Ch.: chan; Tb.: bsam gtan

Literally meaning meditation, Zen is the Japanese expression of the Chinese Chan tradition. Transmitted to Japan in the 12th century, Zen developed into several lineages, most notably Rinzai, Soto, and Obaku. Zen practice emphasizes direct realization through seated meditation (zazen), including koan practice in Rinzai and just sitting (shikantaza) in…