An Introduction to Buddhism

What Is Buddhism?

Buddhism is variously understood as a religion, a philosophy, or a set of beliefs and practices based on the teachings of the Buddha, or “Awakened One”—the title given to the Indian spiritual seeker Siddhartha Gautama after he attained enlightenment more than 2,600 years ago. The Buddha’s best-known teachings, the four noble truths and the eightfold path, describe the nature of human suffering and a way to liberate oneself from the existential pain of living and achieve nirvana.

These teachings spread from India throughout Asia and eventually the rest of the world. While the broader Buddhist family includes many different schools with their own beliefs and practices, these various traditions share a conviction that one can come to understand the truth of existence by living an ethical life dedicated to spiritual development.

Who Was the Buddha?

The historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, lived some 2,600 years ago in the Gangetic Plain around what is today the border between India and Nepal. He was born into a prominent warrior clan, the Shakya, so he was often called Shakyamuni, “Sage of the Shakyas.”

According to legend, shortly after Siddhartha’s birth, a wise man prophesied that the child would grow up to be a powerful ruler or a great spiritual leader. His father, a wealthy and powerful leader of the Shakyas, did everything possible to ensure that his son and heir would have no reason to pursue a religious life. Siddhartha was showered with privilege and luxury and sheltered from the harsh realities of the outside world.

As the story is often told, at age 29, dissatisfied with his luxurious existence, Siddhartha ventured beyond the palace walls on a journey that would change the course of his life. On the first trip, he saw a sick man; on the second, an old man; and on the third, a corpse. These were his first encounters with life’s inevitable suffering. Then, on a fourth trip, Siddhartha saw a homeless mendicant and had a revelation: there might be a way out of suffering, and that possibility seemed to lie in the ascetic life.

Siddhartha left the palace, abandoning his wife, child, and luxurious existence to seek the end of suffering. He first studied with two renowned yogic teachers but, realizing the limits of their teaching, left them to continue his quest. With five companions, he took up extreme ascetic practices, including fasting until he was emaciated.

After six years of this, Siddhartha was near death from starvation but still had not attained his goal. Then it occurred to him: perhaps the way out of samsara—the cycle of birth, suffering, and death—lay neither in total indulgence, like his palace life, nor in extreme physical deprivation, like his spiritual life thus far. Might there be a “middle way” to end suffering through training the mind? He gave up ascetic practices and resolved to meditate under a ficus tree (later called the Bodhi tree) in a town now called Bodhgaya until he discovered the answer he sought.

Seated under the tree, he had a series of profound insights into the nature of reality and attained full enlightenment. For the next 45 years, until his death, he was known as the Buddha—”the Awakened One”—and taught a path to liberation from suffering.

What Did the Buddha Teach?

The Four Noble Truths

Seated under the Bodhi tree, the Buddha had the profound realization that became the heart of his teaching: the four noble truths.

The truth of suffering
The truth of the origin of suffering
The truth of the end to suffering
The truth of the eightfold path

The first noble truth—there is suffering (Sanskrit duhkha, Pali dukkha)—observes that life is characterized by suffering. This observation doesn’t mean that life is nothing but misery. Of course, there’s happiness, but even happy moments are ultimately unsatisfying because everything changes. Good, bad, or indifferent, nothing lasts. Like suffering, impermanence (anicca) is one of the three inescapable facts of existence, also known as the three marks of existence. We all, without exception, are subject to the cycle of birth, aging, sickness, and death, which can lead to much suffering.

The second noble truth—the cause of suffering—says that craving (trsna) lies at the heart of all our discontent. Our attachments and aversions—to (or from) things, people, memories, ideas, everything—fuel this craving. Fundamentally, we want things to be different than they are: we want more, less, different, same, bigger, better, smaller, or we want things to stay as they are and never change. Ignorance of this truth about craving is the root origin of suffering.

The third noble truth—the end to suffering—proclaims that the end of suffering is very real. If we can eradicate desire, hatred, and ignorance, also called the three poisons, suffering can not exist. Like the Buddha, if we can rid ourselves of these poisons, we can experience freedom from suffering or nirvana, a complete escape from craving’s karmic cycle of rebirth. Nirvana is the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice.

The fourth noble truth—the eightfold path—shows us how to reach that goal. It guides us in choosing moral actions, training the mind, and cultivating wisdom. It is often called the middle way, neither a path of indulgence nor self-denial. Like the four noble truths, the eightfold path is also called noble, not because the steps are noble but because following the eight steps can turn a person noble.

The Eightfold Path

The eightfold path is the fourth of the four noble truths. It contains guidelines for training the body and mind, cultivating wisdom, and living a moral life, which together end suffering, the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice. The Buddha is often described as a great physician or healer, and the eightfold path is his course of treatment that can lead us to health and well-being. Avoiding the extremes of self-indulgence and total self-denial, the Buddha’s path is also called “the middle way.”

Right view
Right intention
Right speech
Right action
Right livelihood
Right effort
Right mindfulness
Right concentration

Though the eightfold path is usually listed in this order, it is not strictly sequential, and practitioners should develop each simultaneously. It is common, however, to divide the eight steps into three areas for training: moral conduct (sila), concentration (samadhi), and wisdom (prajna).

The Three Marks of Existence

Buddhism describes all phenomena—including thoughts, emotions, and experiences—as characterized by the three marks of existence (Sanskrit trilaksana): impermanence (anitya), suffering or dissatisfaction (dukkha), and not-self (anatman). Everything within samsara, the cycle of death and rebirth in which all beings exist, is impermanent or ever-changing, ultimately unsatisfying, and free of a fixed, eternal essence. Understanding these three marks of existence is crucial for anyone on the Buddhist path to awakening.

Impermanence: Nothing stays the same—even for a millisecond—and all conditioned phenomena will eventually change, decay, and ultimately deconstruct. All mental and physical phenomena are connected in an ever–moving web of causes and conditions, which Buddhists call dependent origination. The root of our suffering is the mistaken belief that conditioned phenomena are permanent, which results in clinging to or desiringcraving them to be different.

Suffering: Life isn’t ultimately that satisfying. When we desire and cling to things and thoughts that make us happy or sad, both impermanent states, we inevitably suffer in one way or another. Attachment to worldly things isn’t the only source of our suffering; attachment to a false sense of self—fixed and unchanging—also causes suffering, bringing us to the third mark of existence.

Not–self or non–self: No unchanging, permanently existing self or soul inhabits our bodies. Thus, we do not have a fixed, absolute identity. And a self or “I” continuing through life as a separate, singular entity is impossible to find. The “self” is an impermanent construct of physical, mental, and sensory processes that are interdependent and constantly in flux.

The Three Poisons

The Buddha taught that “three poisons” cause most of our problems and most of the turmoil we see in the world.

Desire (Skt. raga, also translated as greed or sensuality)
Hatred (dvesha, or aversion)
Ignorance (moha, or delusion)

These three unwholesome mental afflictions are countered by the virtues of generosity (dana), loving-kindness (maitri, Pali: metta), and wisdom (prajna), which Buddhist practice aims to cultivate. By recognizing thoughts that arise from the three poisons and choosing not to dwell on them, we make progress toward liberation from them.

At the center of a Wheel of Life diagram, a rooster, a pig, and a snake represent the three poisons of greed, ignorance, and hatred, respectively. | Source: Alamy Stock Photo

Samsara, Karma, and Rebirth

Samsara is the cycle of rebirth that all beings experience through a process of birth, aging, sickness, and death. The ultimate goal of Buddhism is freedom—or nirvana—from the suffering that defines samsara.

Karma literally means “action.” The engine that propels beings through samsara, it is the principle of cause and effect tied to the intentions behind our physical, verbal, and mental actions.

Rebirth is a topic that provokes a lot of questions. Buddhism teaches that we each accumulate karma in previous lives that propels us to future lives. In many cases, the Buddha is noted as refusing to discuss the topic, stating that the answers have no impact on our suffering right now and encouraging people to practice and find out for themselves. While the Buddha may have been evasive on this topic on occasion, rebirth figures in many of his teachings and is deeply connected to his view of karma.

The Three Jewels

One of the oldest ways of expressing faith in Buddhism is by taking refuge in the three jewels. Also known as the triple gem and the three treasures, the three jewels are the Buddha (the exemplar), the dharma (the teachings), and the sangha (the community of practitioners). Many rituals and ceremonies in Buddhist communities around the world, as well as the daily practice for individuals, begin with recitation of the three refuge vows:

I take refuge in the Buddha.
I take refuge in the dharma.
I take refuge in the sangha.

For many practitioners, taking refuge is one of the first steps in declaring oneself a Buddhist, along with taking the precepts, guidelines for an ethical life.

Different Schools of Buddhism

When the Buddha died, he left the teachings but no successor or formal structure. In the first centuries after his death, the community (sangha) split into various schools with different views about what he taught. There are not only many different Buddhist lineages around the world today but also many different ways of walking the Buddhist path.

Theravada Buddhism

One of the most prominent schools to emerge from these early Buddhist arguments is Theravada Buddhism. Theravada remains the dominant form of Buddhism practiced in Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos. The Theravada tradition follows the Pali canon, called the Tipitaka (Sanskrit tripitaka), and its adherence to the Pali language is one of its distinctive features. Although the Buddha set ethical guidelines for lay practitioners, Theravada was historically a monastic tradition, emphasizing renunciation and self-purification. The spiritual ideal was the arahant (Sanskrit arhat), or “accomplished one,” who, through their effort, attains nirvana—liberation from the suffering of cyclic existence that marks samsara, or worldly life. Although Zen and Tibetan Buddhism were the first to attract numerous Western convert Buddhists, in the 1970s, Theravada gained popularity when Americans who had studied under vipassana (insight meditation) instructors and Thai Forest masters in Asia returned home to teach meditation, greatly impacting Western Buddhism.

Mahayana Buddhism

Mahayana (literally “great vehicle”) is a diverse group of Buddhist traditions and by far the largest worldwide. Scholars believe it arose in the 1st century BCE and existed side-by-side with the early Buddhist schools for some time before becoming a separate tradition. While individual awakening—the path of the arhat—is the aim for most Theravadins, attained through one’s own efforts in gradual stages and after lifetimes of practice, the Mahayana spiritual model is the bodhisattva, a being intent on achieving enlightenment, who is motivated by bodhicitta, the desire to awaken to help all beings achieve enlightenment. Mahayana teachings emphasize our inherent buddhanature, or seed of awakening, present in all beings, and, in perfecting the qualities of a buddha, the practitioner can achieve realization within a single lifetime. To aid believers on their path to becoming a bodhisattva, the Mahayana has a great pantheon of buddhas, bodhisattvas, and enlightened beings who can be called on for support. Particularly associated with Mahayana is the wisdom of emptiness, or shunyata, the understanding that everything–including ourselves–is empty of inherent existence and arises interdependently. One of the most famous teachings about emptiness is the Heart Sutra, which is chanted daily by many Mahayana practitioners and quite popular among Western Buddhists. Among the most prominent Mahayana schools developed in China was Chan Buddhism, which spread to Vietnam (as Thien Buddhism) in the 2nd century, and Korea (as Son Buddhism) in the 4th century. From Korea, it spread to Japan (as Zen Buddhism) in the 6th century. Pure Land Buddhism, an early Mahayana tradition that looks to Amitabha (Amida Buddha) for salvation and favorable rebirth, took root early on in China and was very influential throughout East Asia.

Vajrayana Buddhism

Vajrayana Buddhism, also known as Tantric Buddhism or Esoteric Buddhism, is a form of Mahayana Buddhism known for its swift methods for awakening. Along with Theravada and Mahayana, it’s considered the third great vehicle of Buddhist thought. It originated in northern India around the 5th century CE, spread across the Himalayan region and beyond, and took root in Tibet in the 7th and 8th centuries. Although widely known through Tibetan Buddhism, it is found throughout Central and East Asia, including Mongolia, Japan, and the Russian republics of Tuva and Buryatia. Vajrayana takes its name from vajra, Sanskrit for “diamond” or “thunderbolt,” suggesting the power of its methods. Adherents consider it the fastest way to enlightenment and the secret culmination of the Buddha’s teaching. Though Vajrayana upholds the Mahayana bodhisattva ideal, its pantheon of celestial beings is far more extensive. These divine beings serve as focal points in meditative and ritual practices, with practitioners aiming to internalize and manifest their enlightened qualities. This approach is seen as a powerful means to transform ordinary perception into direct realization. Noted for the presence of dakinis–female embodiments of wisdom–Vajrayana teachings emphasize a balance of masculine and feminine principles on the path to enlightenment. Since the latter half of the 20th century, Vajrayana Buddhism has gained a global following, with its teachings and practices resonating with contemporary spiritual seekers. Tibetan Buddhist teachers such as the Dalai Lama and Chogyam Trungpa have been instrumental in popularizing Vajrayana practices worldwide.

The Wheel of Life (bhavachakra) is a common motif in Vajrayana art, representing samsara, the cycle of suffering and rebirth; the six realms of rebirth; and the three poisons that keep beings trapped in samsara | Wheel of Life. Tibet; early 20th century. Pigments on cloth. Courtesy of the Rubin Museum of Art. Formerly from the Collection of Navin Kumar, New York. C2004.21.1 (HAR 65356)

Different Kinds of Buddhist Practice

While there are so many kinds of Buddhist meditation, ranging from sitting to walking to chanting, and different lineages and traditions emphasize different ones, all of them share the purpose of developing insight and tranquility, which in the short term offer many benefits on and off the cushion, and in the long term—over many lifetimes even—may lead to enlightenment. Historically, leading an ethical life, protecting the Buddha’s teachings, and generating good karma were more widely practiced than meditation, but now many Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike think of meditation as the primary practice.

Below is a sample of Buddhist meditation practices. To learn about other techniques, see Buddhism for Beginners.

Mindfulness

The now ubiquitous term mindfulness is a translation of the Pali word sati (Sanskrit smriti), and describes the practice of focusing the mind on a particular object, usually the breath, with clarity and equanimity. Right mindfulness, being fully aware of sensations and thoughts, is one of the steps in the eightfold path. Though the term may be used to describe meditation today, historically mindfulness is a foundational technique that’s essential for various other kinds of meditation, including cultivating insight and deep states of concentration.

Vipassana

Vipassana, the Pali word for “insight,” is a clear awareness of exactly what is happening as it happens. It means seeing things as they truly are, not how they appear. Although the term has become synonymous with Vipassana meditation, it didn’t always connote practice. Originally it meant the quality of mind, the clear seeing, developed through meditation. Vipassana meditation really started to spread in late 19th century Myanmar (formerly Burma), when monks started teaching meditation to lay people in order to preserve Buddhism under British colonization. The practice of observing thoughts and sensations in the body, moment to moment, later spread outside Myanmar and became popular worldwide.

Zazen

Zazen, or just sitting, is the meditation practice of attending to the breath, performed by Zen (C. Chan) Buddhists. Zen Buddhism says we are already enlightened, and that just sitting, which is often referred to as a “goalless practice,” is an expression of that awakened nature. Dogen Zenji, the 13th-century founder of the Soto Zen school, called the practice of sitting in open awareness shikantaza. Even though many Zen Buddhists see zazen, or shikantaza, as the primary practice, there are other common Zen practices. The Rinzai school of Japanese Zen encourages contemplation of koans, paradoxical questions or statements used as an object of meditation. Other Zen Buddhists may have butsudan, or shrines, in their homes for memorializing ancestors, and some Buddhists practice Zen through ritual and the arts, such as tea ceremonies and calligraphy.

Nembutsu

The nembutsu is a recitation of the name of Amida Buddha (Sanskrit Amitabha Buddha), the Buddha of Infinite Light, and is the central practice for Pure Land Buddhists. In Japanese, nem or nen means “mindfulness,” and butsu is “buddha.” The actual words, recited out loud or to oneself, are “Namo Amida Butsu” (Japanese), “Namo Omito Fo” (Chinese), “Namo Adida Phat” (Vietnamese), or “Om Ami Dewa Hrih” (Tibetan). Pure Land Buddhists believe that instead of transforming themselves through their own efforts, they can receive the Buddha’s wisdom and compassion by opening to it. The nembutsu is a way to do that. In other words, the nembutsu is not a petitionary prayer, but a recitation to express appreciation for and connection to Amida Buddha. As Buddhist teacher and author Dharmavidya David Brazier explains, it is less of a technique than an orientation. Practitioners may recite the nembutsu while visiting a holy site, in seated meditation while following the breath, or as Shin Buddhists emphasize, as they go about their lives. Shin Buddhism founder Shinran Shonin (1173-1263) saw human nature and ordinary struggles as practice itself, and the wisdom and compassion of Amida Buddha accessible at any time through the recitation of the nembutsu.

Loving-kindness

Metta (Sanskrit maitri), is the Pali word translated as loving-kindess, and metta meditation is the practice of sending loving-kindess to oneself and others with the goal of cultivating kindness toward all. Meditation teacher and author Sharon Salzberg says that where Vipassana is an insight practice, metta is a concentration practice that can also lead to wisdom. Instead of attending to the nature of reality as they would in Vipassana, metta practitioners focus on a particular phrase, such as “may you be happy,” and return to it again and again. Practitioners call to mind themselves and/or others: someone they love, someone they dislike, and someone they feel neutral toward. They then recite a phrase or series of phrases wishing for happiness, ease, safety, or freedom from suffering. Importantly, the foundation of this practice is generosity; the phrase must be an aspiration (as opposed to an affirmation). It is this loving-kindness for all beings that the Buddha said was essential for awakening. All schools of Buddhism engage in some form of metta, either as an aspiration or as a formal meditation, and it has become an especially popular practice in the West.

Tonglen

Tonglen is the Tibetan Buddhist practice of sending and receiving, originating from the lojong, or “mind-training,” teachings, which use short slogans to help transform the mind. Traditionally, practitioners visualize breathing in the suffering of others, and breathing out compassion to all. Practitioners may use different visualizations to represent suffering and compassion, such as dark smoke and bright light. The purpose of tonglen is to loosen attachment to the self and cultivate compassion. Although tonglen is typically performed in a seated posture, it can also be practiced in everyday life.

Walking

Walking meditation is the practice of closely watching the act of putting one foot in front of the other, of paying close attention to the sensations in the body as one moves forward, in order to cultivate mindfulness. It can be done slowly, on one’s own, or in public, as part of everyday life. Many traditions—including Theravada, Zen, and modern mindfulness—teach walking meditation, and the late Vietnamese Zen Master Thich Nhat Hanh was one of the most famous proponents of the practice as a way to connect with one’s body and mind, and the earth. It’s widely practiced, especially as a compliment to sitting meditation.